Written by Yash Deshpande
Akbar crosses the Ganga by Nand, Gwaliari and Jagan. Akbarnama, 1590-95, India.
“The manners and customs of India, and […] their ways became pleasing to him.” – Abul Fazl
Akbar began incorporating Hindustani practices and traditions into his daily routine and court life. There was an active movement to assimilate Hindustani culture. This was naturally encouraged by his many marriages to Rajput princesses, the first of which was to the Kachhwa Rajput princess, Harkha Bai. This marriage went a long way in establishing Akbar as a Hindustani ruler. Its effects were twofold. First, the Rajput princess did not come alone; with her came members of her family, Rajput nobility, who now attended Akbar’s court, as well as the customs and traditions of the Rajputs. Diwali celebrations, Holi celebrations and the rakhi ritual became common practices in the zenana. All of these were customs that rajas across Hindustan practised. Thus, the Mughal court gained an element of familiarity for the rajas of Hindustan. Second, the Rajputs had previously given their princesses in marriage to the Shahs of Gujarat, the Tughlaqs of Delhi and various other Hindu rulers. This localized the Mughals by equating them with dynasties that had long established their footholds in India, Hindu-Muslim alike.
Akbar’s court was soon to change in composition completely. His conquests of Rajasthan, Khandesh and Bengal saw the Mughal court rise in prestige and diversity. Whereas Babur’s peripatetic court was almost entirely composed of Turani nobles and his immediate relations, Akbar’s court was a combination of Persian, Turani and Hindu nobility. By 1580, the total number of Rajput mansabdars numbered forty-three, out of 272. Persians accounted for forty-seven noblemen, Indian Muslims forty-four, with Turani noblemen having the highest number at sixty-seven. This was no accident, but a decision taken by Akbar to reduce Turani influence.
Another example of a shift from Timurid culture was that of succession. After Akbar, no longer were male cousins of the rulers considered potential successors to the throne; only the legitimate progeny of the Emperor undertook in the bloody wars of succession of the Mughal dynasty. This was, of course, a way to solidify the empire and prevent unwanted threats to his legitimacy but it has clear roots in the customs of the Hindustani rajas, particularly the Rajputs who considered only the eldest legitimate son of the king fit to rule.
Ambassadors pay homage to Akbar by Sarwan and Madhav. Akbarnama, 1590-95, India.
Hindustani practices such as jharoka darshan were introduced to the court, much to the chagrin of nobles such as Badauni. The practice saw Akbar rise with the sun and make an appearance in front of the masses through a balcony of sorts. The populace would pay obeisance and then the day would begin. This practice continued until Aurangzeb abolished it after the first ten years of his rule. Assimilation and the changes in the identity of the court can be seen in the evolution of court culture. Chaghatai and Timurid practices were left behind in favour of Hindustani practices. Badauni laments this shift from Turki-Chaghatai customs when he chronicles the arrival of Mirza Sulaiman of Badakshan:
‘They spread royal tables in the audience-hall and the officers of high grade gathered the soldiers together, and took to themselves the trouble of arranging the customary food. But when the Mirza departed, all these [customs] departed too.’
Under Akbar, the garments worn at the court also changed. Akbar designed the jama and the takuchiya. These garments were tightly fitted up to the waist and then flowed out in full skirts with tight sleeves, paired with churidars or pyjamas. Formal clothing has always been an important symbol of identity as it is the clothing worn in circles of power. Akbar’s shift to Hindustani clothing shows a change in the power circle, not only were Hindustani nobles (shaikhzadas and rajas) a part of the court, but they were now actively influencing policy. Hindavi terms were also invented for these items of clothing such as the sarbagati for jama, sis–shobah for cap, parmnaram for shawl and chitra-gupita for the burqa.
There were changes in not just the clothing of the court but the appearance of the Emperor as well. In the Hindustan of Akbar’s age, facial hair was a way to determine the caste of an individual. Ruling castes such as the Rajputs did not keep facial hair, except for the moustache which was (and still is) seen as a sign of great manhood. Hindustani rajas also kept long hair to emulate the rulers of the classical age of Hindustani history. Akbar himself followed this very practice, only keeping a small moustache and maintaining a generous mop of hair as is seen in several surviving portraits. Naturally, this style was soon adopted by those who sought to be in his inner circle.
Another major change was in the revenue system and the administration of the Empire. Akbar’s ancestors had relied on the bounty gained by defeating other warlords as a means to fill their treasury and fund future campaigns. Any new territory gained was divided among important nobles who were charged with collecting revenue. This method was highly inefficient and predatory in nature. Rampant corruption not only alienated the populace from the rulers but also ensured that barely any revenue reached the royal treasuries. This system was also hereditary which only caused further problems. Akbar created the mansabdari system as a solution to this. The mansabdars were officers of different ranks who were assigned to different jagirs or territories from which revenue was to be collected. These posts were not hereditary, and though sons of mansabdars were offered concessions or other posts, the holdings of the mansabdar would return to the Emperor. Furthermore, mansabdars were often moved from one jagir to another to prevent them from establishing a foothold or abusing the population.
No longer would mansabdars make a living from bounty captured during the war; they were paid a fixed salary through their jagir appointments. The mansabdari system was also applied to Hindu rulers and chiefs further integrating them into the court and awarding loyalty. This led to the peaceful assimilation of local rulers who were now incentivised to work for the court instead of simply paying an annual fee to the Emperor.
Akbar’s rule also marked a shift in the religious order patronized by the Mughals. Leaving aside Akbar’s later exploration of religion and religious freedom under the Din-e-Ilahi movement (which in itself is a Hindustani creation supported by ideas of Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism), he actively moved away from the Central Asian Naqshbandi order of Sufi saints and patronized the Hindustani Chishtis instead. The Naqshbandis looked at themselves as robust guardians of Islam and Muslim populations across the world. They detested other religious activities as blasphemous. Akbar looked to distance himself from the Naqshbandis for this very reason. He understood that to rule Hindustan he must espouse religious tolerance, an ethos which was propagated by the Chishtis who believed in helping all those in need regardless of their religion.
This shift was marked by his multiple visits to Ajmer where the dargah of Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti, who is considered to be the founder of the Chishti order in Hindustan, is located. This connection was further solidified when he named his son, the later Jahangir, after the great saint of his times, Khwaja Salim Chishti. Other Hindustani religious practices such as sun worship were adopted by Akbar, and a special building was erected at the very top of Fatehpur Sikri for this very purpose. Cow slaughter was prohibited, and Akbar often came to the Diwan-e-Aam with a tilak on his forehead and a rakhi tied to his hand. These practices were of course emulated by the Hindu nobles, as well as some of the Persian and Turani nobles who sought to curry favour with the Emperor. The ancient custom of tuldaan was also revived under Akbar. Healso went as far as to patronise certain temples in Mathura. This practice spread to other members of the royal family such as Hamida Banu Begum and was continued by his descendants despite popular beliefs. The Govind Das temple received two hundred bighas of land as a revenue-free gift from the Emperor. Many such donations and gifts were to follow.
It is clear that it was under Akbar that the Mughal Empire shifted drastically into a Hindustani Empire. Though a descendant of Babur and Timur, Akbar was as Hindustani as just about any ruler before him. His diet, lifestyle, religion and rule as well as the practices of his court reflect the same.
Bibliography
Chandra, S. (2002). Parties and Politics at the Mughal Court, 1707-1740. Oxford University Press.
Eraly, A. (1997). The Last Spring (2015th ed., Vol. 1). Penguin Books.
Fazl, A. (2010). The Akbarnama (H. Beveridge, Trans.; Vol. 1). Asiatic Society.
Khan, I. A. (2016). India’s Polity in the Age of Akbar.
Mukhoty, I. (2020). Akbar: The Great Mughal. Aleph Book Company.
Sen, C. T. (2015). Feasts and Fasts: A History of Food in India. Reaktion Books.
Image credits:
Nand, Gwalior and Jagan (1590-1595) Akbar Crosses The Ganges. Victoria & Albert Museum. Online: https://www.vandaimages.com/results.asp?x4=IS.2:58-1896
Sarwan and Madhav (1590-95) Ambassadors Pay Homage to Akbar. Victoria & Albert Museum. Online: https://www.vandaimages.com/results.asp?x4=IS.2:114-1896
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