Written By: Poppy Williams
19/11/2023
During the time of the Mongol Empire, spanning from 1206 until 1368, the cultural diversity of its inhabitants was extensive. The Mongols’ dominant religion was declared Tengrism – a Shamanist belief system, and a form of animism, where everything had a spiritual essence, even rocks, water, and plants. Despite this, there were substantial groups of people who followed Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, and Taoism. Due to the sheer, cross-continental size of the Empire, during the reign of Genghis Khan (1206 – 1227), he realised it benefitted his expansionist ambitions to ensure religious freedom for all his empire’s inhabitants. This article will discuss whether his title of ‘Defender of Religions’ was deserved, and the extent to which his legacy of religious toleration was continued by his successors.
Genghis Khan’s Policy of Religious Toleration
Genghis Khan himself was a Tengrist, requiring him to follow the three main tenets: honour the spirits; maintain harmony among all elements of the environment; and when trouble arose, to call upon a shaman (a holy man or woman) to rectify whatever was deemed ‘out of balance’. Despite this, he actively sought and encouraged others to discuss and learn about different faiths; he, and his successors, would occasionally hold debates between religious leaders throughout the empire to foster sharing of knowledge and culture. This resulted in many Mongol people practicing other religions simultaneously, alongside shamanism.
According to Juvaini, a Persian historian who wrote an extensive account of the Mongol Empire, Genghis Khan introduced his policy of religious freedom during his conquest of Khwarazmian (modern day Iran) from 1219 – 1221. Despite the brutal nature of the conflict, it was here that Genghis Khan declared that Islamic religious practices were permitted – such as the recitation of the Islamic call to prayer, the Azari. Throughout his reign, his toleration extended even further, declaring all religious leaders – no matter their faith – exempt from taxation.
However, whilst the Mongols were free to practice their religion as they pleased, it was understood that their loyalty was expected to lie with the Khan rather than religious leaders, rather than the Pope as seen with Mongol Christians. Inhabitants of the Mongol Empire were Mongolians first, and their faith second. This was considered especially unusual by those travelling from outside the empire. This is exemplified by the journey of a Franciscan missionary, William of Rubruck in 1248. Hearing rumours of Batu Khan’s son, Sartaq’s, conversion to Christianity, Rubruck met with him in hopes of receiving support in spreading the gospel. Whilst Sartaq dutifully followed Genghis Khan’s policy of religious toleration, allowing Rubruck to worship and preach as he pleased, he refused to call himself a Christian. In the account of his journey, Rubruck describes his feelings of astonishment at Sartaq’s assertion – illustrating that, from an outside perspective, many failed to understand this Mongol worldview.
Was his Title of the ‘Defender of Religion’ Deserved?
Genghis Khan’s policy of religious toleration is generally celebrated as one of the few positive legacies of the Mongol Empire. However, some argue that its true extent has often been overemphasised. Whilst it is certainly true that the Mongols were not forbidden from following whichever faith they pleased, this did not mean that restrictions were not placed on certain faiths: namely Islam and Judaism. Genghis Khan issued a decree which forbade halal butchering practices – forcing Muslims to slaughter their sheep in secret – alongside banning circumcision and kosher food practices. This decree evidently contrasts his honourable title of ‘Defender of Religion’, which raises the question – how did his title originate?
The title was given to Genghis Khan in 1218 after Muslim envoys sought his protection from their Christian khan, Kuchlug, under whom Muslims faced religious persecution. He soon led a campaign against Kuchlug in Balasagun (a central Asian territory, bordering the Khwarazmian empire), asserting religious freedom for the land’s populace. However, it was likely that his eager accommodation of the Muslim envoy’s request was not solely due to a desire to grant Mongols religious freedom. Rather, it is credible to suggest that, with the death of Kuchlug and the subsequent acquisition of a Central Asian outpost, Genghis Khan’s motivations were based on expanding and consolidating the Mongol Empire’s power.
Genghis Khan certainly exploited the opportunity provided by religious persecution for his own benefit; by promising to impose religious freedom he was able to use suppressed people as spies in cities, take the land, and assimilate all those willing. Although he defended religion and imposed religious toleration for his own benefit, it is arguable that this limits the extent to which he deserved the title, ‘Defender of Religion.’ This is because he attempted to assimilate the new territories of the Mongol Empire alongside placing limitations on aspects of Islam and Judaism. However, the extent to which religious freedom was imposed was certainly revolutionary for his time, raising the question of whether having limitations was perhaps inevitable.
Genghis Khan’s Legacy of Religious Toleration: Continued or Lost?
With his reign ending in 1227, it is interesting to explore the extent to which Genghis Khan’s policy of religious toleration was continued. Under his successor, Ögedei Khan, his policy was further expanded upon. With few houses of worship existing due to the nomadic lifestyle of Mongol tribes, Ögedei Khan ordered construction for places of worship for numerous faiths – particularly for followers of Buddhism, Islam, Christianity, and Taoism in the Mongol capital of Karakorum. This established common places of worship which had rarely been created under his predecessor.
Returning to the journey of the Christian missionary, William of Rubruck’s story illustrates the continuation of religious tolerance and celebration in the Mongol Empire. Although his motivations for travelling to the Mongol Empire were to preach the gospel, there was much ambiguity surrounding his status as he was perceived as a royal envoy for French King Louis IX. The Mongols held the status of envoys in far lower regard but once it was made clear that Rubruck was a missionary, when he visited Batu Khan, they bestowed numerous gifts and services upon him for his journey. Furthermore, Rubruck was also greatly encouraged and facilitated in his missionary efforts, showing how Genghis Khan’s legacy was continued in the following decades after his death.
However, as we get closer to the century’s end, in 1280, Kublai Khan revived Genghis Khan’s decree of forbidding halal butchering, circumcision, and kosher practices. Whilst this was revoked a decade later, it is significant to observe how the policy of religious toleration was evidently contentious to different Khans. Despite this brief divergence from religious freedom, it is generally accepted that Genghis Khan’s policy was continued through to, and past, the end of the Mongol Empire in 1368. Although the Mongol Empire was superseded by the Yuan dynasty, they were also known for following a policy of religious toleration – whether this was a continuation from the Mongol Empire is a point of debate.
Conclusion
Religious toleration was certainly a unique feature of the Mongol Empire as this was rarely, if at all, seen in the wider world. Genghis Khan’s implementation of this policy can for some, justify his title of ‘Defender of Religion’ alone. However, his introduction of this policy is likely to have been for his own benefit. Due to the sheer extent of land his empire covered, the vast number of inhabitants resultingly brought a variety of faiths under Mongol jurisdiction. Therefore, to maintain as much harmony as possible and to continue his expansion of the empire, it was greatly beneficial for Genghis Khan to allow religious freedom. Yet, it should not be forgotten that he clearly had personal religious prejudices – as exemplified in his banning of practices unique to certain faiths. Thus, overall, it can be argued that his title of ‘Defender of Religion’ was not completely justified as he initially implemented restrictions and used situations of religious suppression to further his personal motivations.
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